Assessment, Science, and Learning Theory

When thinking about science and how you assess student, it seems that many people (teachers, parents, administrators, politicians) are still focused on vocabulary and breadth of surface knowledge instead of that student's depth of understanding.  Content knowledge is sought instead of critical thinking.  However, because people are worried about student grades, assessment has become spotlighted in recent years, especially after NCLB.

Assessment should be considered carefully and done with purpose.  When thinking about your science goals for students, you must consider your assessments to ensure that you are assessing your goals and not just your content.  You must provide authentic opportunities for students to demonstrate the skills you are wanting them to learn.  Assessment is a part of teaching and should reflect the teacher's philosophy of teaching as well as learning theory.

In learning theory I tend to lean more toward the cognitive side of things.  Behaviourism has it's points, but has ethical implications that I would rather not delve into. 

With cognitive learning theory, there are three main branches.  Social, constructivist, and developmental.  Each theory has a different focus, so how you assess should mesh with the theory that you teach by.  If you believe in a blend of theories, blend, but develop or choose your assessment with purpose instead of personal convenience. 

Social Learning Theory - Children learn through communication.  They learn through interactions with peers, family, teachers, etc.  There is a focus on building knowledge through a relationship between the student and a more knowledgeable mentor.  Vygotsky was a social learning theorist and also pushed the idea of the zone of proximal development.  If social learning theory holds weight with you as a teacher then assessment should be about that communication of knowledge though discussion.  SLT also means that the should use formative assessment so that they know where a student is and how much that student should be pushed while staying within their ZPD.

Constructivist Learning Theory - Everything is built on prior knowledge.  If a student's mind was a house then new information is furniture.  When learning, the student either fits that information into a pre-existing room (assimilation) or the student builds a new room for that information to go into (accommodation).  If a teacher believes in CLT then they must also use formative assessment so they know how to teach their students.  The teacher must determine if they are building upon old information, introducing new (but related ideas), or fighting misconceptions (conceptual change). 

Developmental Learning Theory - Children develop in stages that limit understanding.  The younger a child the more concrete examples of subject matter must be.  With young students, content may developmentally appropriate but assessment must also be concrete.  The teacher must think about making the questions more accessible or must make the test less abstract.  Have students demonstrate their knowledge through action and problem solving instead of pen and paper.

Science Education in Urban Schools

When thinking about strategies that might generate interest of science in underrepresented groups I know how I feel.  Teaching students from diverse cultural and economic backgrounds is a passion of mine.  Thankfully, it seems to be a passion for others as well and is something that is being researched more each year.  An article titled Research in Urban Science Education: An Essential Journey discusses a conference that had a great deal of discussion on urban science education and how it affects students of racial minorities.

“In comparisons of student performance on science assessments, students in the Untied states are outperformed by students from other “developed” nations.  The goal of “science for all” continues to be unattainable, particularly in the urban setting where science achievement gaps exist between some groups of African American, Latino, Native American, and Asian American students and their white counterparts.  There is a critical need for research-based information to guide the solution of achievement gaps in science,” (Fraser-Abder, Atwater & Lee, 2006)

When discussing what should be done, the article also had quite a bit to say about future research topics, but few answers.

“Many researchers and reformers recognize that what is missing in reform strategies is the creation of a personalized environment that promotes engaged and caring student-teacher relationships . . . Urban science classrooms often lack appropriate science instruction materials and supplies, a state of affairs often exacerbated by a more generalized lack of resources and funding in urban schools serving large numbers of underrepresented groups of students . . . The students’ linguistic capabilities and cultural heritages, along with their socioeconomic status and exceptionalities and disabilities, must be taken into consideration,” (Fraser-Abder, Atwater & Lee, 2006)

I translate it as such, as teachers of underrepresented groups we must show students that we care about them and respect their backgrounds.  Students must be encouraged to embrace their identity while working on academics.  For a student to be moved by a subject area they must see someone like them represented in the field.  Show students that there are others like them who are successful in science.  Let them interact with the subject manner in a concrete way that pushes them to draw connections between science and their own life. 

Display images of scientists and researchers who were women, black, Asian, Hispanic, Native American, Indian, disabled, or who came from economic hardships.  Research those people in class and have a different “science mentor” each week.   Teach the nature of science so that students who aren’t white, affluent males are interested.  Science can be fun, social, interactive, and changing.  It can be for kids who like to play outside or sit in front of a computer.  For students to be interested in science, they must see themselves as potential scientists, no matter where they come from or what language they speak.

Fraser-Abder, P., Atwater, M., & Lee, O. (2006). Research in urban science education: An essential journey. Journal of research in science teaching, 43(7), 599-606. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.20156/abstract

Teacher Actions and Student Goals

In a previous post I listed nine student goals for student classroom that my Science Methods course came up with this semester.  One of the standards that I need to meet to satisfy the course standards is to, "Clearly promote (student) goals through teacher behavior/actions."  It's interesting that I put this goal off because honestly, it seems very basic to me.  If you want your students to do certain things, then provide opportunities for them to do so.

1. Students will demonstrate a robust understanding of science content.
2. Students will apply problem solving/questioning skills in daily life.
3. Students will demonstrate the ability to work collaboratively.
4. Students will effectively communicate ideas (e.g. methods, explanations, information).
5. Students will apply and relate science concepts beyond the science classroom.
6. Students will research and clearly defend their reasoning using credible sources/evidence.
7. Students will demonstrate curiosity.
8. Students will demonstrate self-reflection.
9. Students will use imagination and creativity in their work.

If a teacher wants his/her students to demonstrate they must allow their students to speak or create something that displays their knowledge.

If a student is to apply their knowledge and questioning skills in daily life that teacher must make their concepts concrete and transferable.  If science concepts are supposed to to transfer to outside of the classroom then the concepts discussed in the classroom should have roots in student experience.

When a teacher want students to work collaboratively, that teacher must allow those students to work as a team, speak, argue, debate, team up, and work it out.  Teachers need to have good classroom management but they do not need to be authoritarian for their students to be respectful and on task.

If a student is to communicate their ideas, they must first be confident enough to speak and have ideas of their own.  Free thinking and free speaking is a right that should be nourished in all children through thoughtful use of observation, experimentation, discussion, varied text, and less direct instruction.

For students to research and defend they must have access to credible research and the confidence to back it up.  Students must have faith in their own knowledge and voice.  That means you, as a teacher, must be credible.  You must guide them away from content misconceptions while allowing them to make their own decisions.

If students are to be creative and self-reflective then they must know their own self.  To be creative is to have the confidence to think beyond one's usual comfort zone and to make connections between different ways of thinking.  To be self-reflective is to be aware of your own strengths and weaknesses.  Students must have opportunities to succeed and fail.  Sometimes success doesn't teach us a thing while failure leads us to try new things.

Try, try again.

Dewey's Learning Model and Student Goals

"The sustained use of an effective, research-based instructional model can help students learn fundamental concepts in science and other domains. If we accept that premise, then an instructional model must be effective, supported with relevant research and it must be implemented consistently and widely to have the desired effect on teaching and learning," (2006).

"Dewey implies an instructional approach that is based on experience and requires reflective thinking. In contemporary terms, doing hands-on activities in science is not enough. Those experiences also must be minds on," (2006).

 

John Dewey was a forefather of art integration, learning through nature, learning through interactive processes, and the school as a social institution. His ideas fully interweave social and developmental learning theories while placing great emphasis on conceptual change theory as well. Dewey believed that school must be a social space where students could touch and explore what they were studying, and what students studied was determined by what they didn't quite understand. Teachers were to seek out student misconceptions and then create learning situations for the students that would test those misconceptions and nudge students in the right direction merely through observation, interaction, and reflection.

His original model of instruction is the grandfather of the modern BSCS 5E learning model.

Dewey	BSCS 5S
Sensing Perplexing Situations   Clarifying the Problem   Formulating a Tentative Hypothesis   Testing the Hypothesis   Revising Rigorous Tests   Acting on the Solution	Engagement   Exploration   Explanation   Elaboration   Evaluation

At its heart, 5S is Dewey's model. You could argue that engagement and evaluation are additional steps that surround the original six of Dewey's model but I think that those areas may have been more implicit in his teaching.

In a previous post I mentioned goals for students. If a teacher uses the Dewey/5S learning model for teaching their students they will have a solid structure for which to build content knowledge and other goals. Goals may vary, but because of those goal's focus on the nature of science and Dewey/5S model's focus on the student the two easily work together. Each part works in tandem to ensure that students learn content, communicate effectively, collaborate with peers, relate concepts to other areas, and self-reflect.

If a teacher is going to have goals that rely on student self-efficacy, reflection, curiosity, and observations then they must teach using a framework that allows for those things. You must have a purpose to your lessons that are more complex then "hands on," "fun," "assessment," and the like. As a teacher you must think holistically about what part of your students' thinking is mistaken and how you can push them to discover the correct theory on their own. As a teacher you must always be thinking, "so what?" What is the point of this activity and where are you going with it? How does this concept build upon previous content and how will I tie it to later content? How can I further this class's understanding of the nature of science?

Student led learning is a wonderful concept but a teacher must have a framework on which to build consistent teaching methods that are engaging and research driven. Experimentation is fine, but make sure that how you teach is done with good, research driven, models in mind.

                Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Van Scotter, P., Powell, J. C., Westbrook, A., & Landes, N. (2006). Retrieved from BSCS website: http://science.education.nih.gov/houseofreps.nsf/b82d55fa138783c2852572c9004f5566/$FILE/AppendixD.pdf

ELL Differentiation

When it comes to differentiation of science lessons, I think that it's important to focus on the student's needs first.  Many of the methods used to teach English language learners (ELL) would work fantastically with good science teaching. 

With early ELL students it is important to provide sensory support during each lesson.  The more concrete you can make a lesson, the better an ELL student will learn.  According to constructivist learning theory, this is true of all students. 

To paraphrase my instructor, teaching science is just a way to teach thinking.  Some tips for the education and assessment of ELL students are featured in Differentiating Instruction and Assessment for English Language Learners by Fairbairn and Jones-Vo.

• Afford access to the curriculum by using realia, pictures, diagrams, models, demonstrations, graphic organizers, nonverbal communication, videos, computer-assisted instruction, etc.
• Allow sufficient wait time.
• Apply the same academic content standards to the learning of all students.
• Ensure that directions are clear; confirm that students understand them.
• Activate ELLs' interests and prior knowledge as they relate to content.
• Embed the development of higher-order thinking throughout instruction.
• Make the abstract comprehensible by first demonstrating concrete applications or examples.
• Concentrate on student meaning rather than on correctness of expression.
• Create and use assignments.assessments that allow students to demonstrate content knowledge, skills, and abilities without language mastery, (2010, Fairbairn and Jones-Vo).

That said, there are many teaching methods used with teaching English and reading that would be harmful in teaching science and thinking skills. 

• Focus on correct answers rather than errors and ommissions.
• Inform students of the daily objectives for each lesson in terms of both language and content.
• Build confidence by rewarding all attempts to communicate, (2010, Fairbairn and Jones-Vo).

In my classes we have talked quite a bit about responding to student answers.  There is a lot of debate on wether rewarding answers/comments is actually helpful to students.  With science learning it is prefered that student comments are acknowledged, discussed, or used but not confirmed, denied, or celebrated.

Also, with science students do not need to know the objectives before they learn.  Reading teachers must be explicit with vocabulary and expectations.  However, in science as student may need to know some vocabulary, but they don't always need to know the madness behind the method. 

Fairbairn, S., & Jones-Vo, S. (2010). Differentiating instruction and assessment for english language learners: A guide for k - 12 teachers. Caslon Publishing.

It Egg-sploded!

 

It Egg-sploded!

A guided inquiry into matter changes for primary grades.

 by Destiny Warner

 

 

Abstract: Questioning and thinking is an important part of science education. Working with students and providing opportunities for simple experimentation is a superb way to inspire interest as well as provide opportunities to enact conceptual changes. Students were prompted via questioning and encouraged express their own thoughts on matter changes with each stage of the activity.

This lesson follows Iowa Core Essential Concepts and Skills for K-2: Understand and apply knowledge of characteristics of liquids and solids. Materials can exist in different states – solid, liquid, and gas. Some common materials, such as water, can be changed from one state to another by heating or cooling.

Introduction:
The discussion of matter and matter change is common in science classrooms from an early age. A basic understanding of matter is an important foundation for later learning so why limit instruction to abstract text and vocabulary instruction?

Constructivist learning theory teaches us that students do not learn from rote memorization and lecture only. John Dewey stated that, "If knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind," (Dewey, 2009). Learning must be concrete. We must use personal experiences and make contact with the world if we are to learn from it.

In this lesson the teacher guides students using questioning strategies to assess students’ prior knowledge as well as move forward within the experiment. For student conceptions to change, change must come from within the student via personal observation and careful consideration.

Previously Covered Content:
First, I assessed their knowledge of matter after a primary lecture but before experimenting to determine what misconceptions they might have (Figure 1). Using their answers I decided to focus on one major misconception:

• If different objects are heated/cooled for the same amount of time and at the same temperature, those objects will change in the same way no matter their material.

Figure 1: Pre-Assessment Questions

What do you know about matter (stuff) and how it changes? What would happen if we put an object like carrots, eggs, water, or soap into a freezer? Would each item change in the same way? Why? What would happen if we heated an object like carrots, eggs, water, or soap in a microwave? Would each item change in the same way? Why?

Investigation:

Figure 2: Materials Needed Per Group

Lined paper or science notebooks Pencils 3 carrots 3 eggs Half a cup of water Ice cubes or frozen cup of water 1 bar of Ivory brand soap cut into three sections of equal size. Freezer Microwave Sink Soap for hand-washing and clean-up

Please note: In this experiment it is important to use Ivory brand soap because other brands will melt and create a great deal of smoke when heated in a microwave. Also, it is wise to test experiments at home before they are conducted with students, but mistakes can make for authentic learning opportunities.

To prepare for this lesson I placed a carrot, egg, piece of soap, and water in a freezer 24 hours in advance. I also prepared a list of questions to have available if I struggled during group discussion.

To start with I bring out a carrot and have the students examine it. “Describe the carrot.” Students will probably say some variation of, “Hard,” “Orange,” “A little bendy. “ Encourage students to think about previous discussion on matter. “Why is the carrot a solid? Why is there liquid inside this solid?” When questioning it is important to make appropriate use of Wait Time 1 to prompt student thinking and expression of thought processes. With second graders, most are still eager to answer questions so a teacher shouldn’t have to wait more then 2-4 seconds. In my experiences with this experiment, I didn’t have to ask many questions because the students asked them first. I was often quiet and able to let them do the talking. “It stinks!” “It’s squishy.” “Let me touch it!” While experimenting, most young primary students will just shout out whatever they saw that was interesting to them. Encourage this. Some students will need more prompting, but that can also be done by asking, “Everyone, what do think about what Jennifer said? What else might happen?” Science is collaborative by nature so it is important to model that in your teaching.

“What would happen if we put a carrot in a freezer overnight?” Some common responses are, “It would freeze,” “Get harder,” “Get covered in ice.”

“How would we test that?” Most, or at least one, students will come up with the idea of placing the carrot in the freezer overnight. Once that happens, then bring out the carrot from the freezer and ask, “Describe the carrot now.” Most students will probably just say, “It froze,” but push for further information. “What do you mean by ‘it froze?”

“What do you think would happen if we heated a carrot?” “ How would we test that?” Talk with the students to work out how long a carrot should be heated in a microwave (one minute is plenty) and let them observe the process through the door. Afterwards, remove the carrot carefully by holding on to the edges of the napkin or using a hot -pad if you placed the carrot on a plate since the carrot and plate will be hot. Then push the students to describe how it changed.

“What is that coming off of the carrot?” Most students will say it is smoke but some might know that it is steam. At this point it is a good lead to go back to the first carrot and break it in half to show the slightly wet insides. “What happens if water gets really hot?” Most will say that it “boils,” but not know what the steam is. Measure out a small amount of water in a clear cup and mark on a line where the water level is. “What do you think will happen if we heat the water in the microwave?” “How long should we heat the water?” In this it is okay to nudge the students toward the same amount of time that you heated the carrot so that the same thing is done to each object. “How can we make sure that we are being consistent about cooking time?” “Why should we be consistent?”

Students (and scientists!) are curious by nature so once cool enough let the students poke and bend each carrot. Break each carrot in half so they can compare the insides. Direct the students to record (write or draw) their observations on the three carrots in their notebooks.

Once done with the carrots, bring out an egg. Let students examine and touch it. Encourage them to talk. Ask what the inside of a raw egg is like and then crack open the egg over a sink or bowl so that they can confirm or disprove those thoughts.

“What do you think will happen if we freeze a raw egg? Write down your prediction in your journals. Feel free to write, draw a picture, and use labels like on a diagram.” Retrieve the frozen egg from the freezer. Most students will make their own comments without prompting, “It froze!” “It cracked!” “It’s cold.” After students touch the egg, ask, “What do you think the inside of the egg is like now?” Each time I asked a student would suggest breaking it open. Attempt to do so. Bang it on the side of the sink, use a butter knife, etc. Try to break it. If frozen overnight it will not break. “What state is the egg in now?” “How are the frozen egg and the frozen carrot the same? Different?” “What will happen if we heat an egg in the microwave?” Direct students to write their predictions in their journals.

When talking with students it is important to use language appropriate for second grade students. This age is not the time to be talking about physical and chemical changes. Instead, focus on how each object changes between solid, liquid, and gas because of changes in temperature. If you find yourself wondering if your class is ready for a science concept I recommend that you refer to the Atlas of Science Literacy Vol. 1 and 2.

Continue with the experiment and microwave the egg for the length of time the students recommend. It will crack open in the microwave, pour out of the shell and cook to a fluffy solid. Have students compare with the previously heated items. “How does heating this egg after heating the carrot change your thinking about what happens when stuff gets hot?” “How can we compare what we think now to what we thought earlier?”

Finish this activity by getting out the Ivory soap. Discuss the soap, its appearance and state of matter. Have the students write in their journals their predictions of what would happen one chunk of soap was placed in the freezer and another was heated. Push them to converse with each-other about what they think will happen. When frozen, the Ivory soap will barely change. It gets cold, but no harder. Pass it around and let them make their own observations though.

“What should we do next?” Students will direct you to microwave the soap. “How long?” Most will say “One minute!” or however long you heated the previous items. “Why do you say one minute?” Follow their directions and step back so they can watch through the door. The Ivory soap will expand to many times its original size. It’s very light, fluffy, and can be squished. Encourage discussion and exploration. Have them journal what really happened in their science journals.

At the end of this lesson ask again, “If we heat or freeze different objects for the same amount of time, why don’t the same things happen to them?” Push them to talk to each-other and assess how their knowledge has changed. Collaboration is a key part of science research and it is important to foster this important aspect with students and their peers. “How did your ideas about solids, liquids, and gases change?” Some students may try to say that their thinking didn’t change. When that happens draw their attention to what they wrote in their journals before and after the experiment. “It’s okay for ideas to change. Scientists learn and add to or change their thinking every day. How does that help them to be better scientists?”

“How did working in a group change how you thought?” “It was weird.” “I didn’t like his answers.” “I like what she said because I thought it too.” “It made me feel better to know we were both wrong.” “I like that we all were wrong and right about different things.”

“How do you think these types of things make scientists better at their jobs?” “It makes it so they can get lots of ideas and have lots of friends to help them work, even if they don’t like them so much.” “Maybe they can get more stuff done or get more money because there are more hands.”

Conclusion:
This activity is a useful experiment in demonstrating that "things can be done to materials to change their properties, but not all materials respond the same way to what is done to them. 4D/2," (Atlas of science literacy, 2001). This activity is an implicit and explicit way to demonstrate the social and collaborative nature of science while teaching content and adhering to state standards.


Bibliography:

Dewey, J. (2009). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: WLC Books.

(2001). Atlas of science literacy. (Vol. 1). Aaas Project 2061

Student Goals

Towards the beginning of my Elementary Science Methods course our class came up with a list nine goals for students in a science classroom. 

1. Students will demonstrate a robust understanding of science content.
2. Students will apply problem solving/questioning skills in daily life.
3. Students will demonstrate the ability to work collaboratively.
4. Students will effectively communicate ideas (e.g. methods, explanations, information).
5. Students will apply and relate science concepts beyond the science classroom.
6. Students will research and clearly defend their reasoning using credible sources/evidence.
7. Students will demonstrate curiosity.
8. Students will demonstrate self-reflection.
9. Students will use imagination and creativity in their work.

We did end up fleshing out these goals quite a bit and gave examples of how each of these goals could be met by students.  The interesting thing is how these goals are interwoven.  For a student to demonstrate their understanding of science content (1) they must be able to effectively communicate ideas (4).  If a student is to work collaboratively (3) they must also be able to communicate (4).

To be able to apply problem solving skills into daily life (2) a student must be able to apply and relate the science concepts beyond the classroom (5).    To research a subject (6) a student must first be curious about that subject (7).  For a student to defend their reasoning (6) they must communicate effectively (4).

Imagination and creativity (9) along with curiosity (7) provide the motivation while honest self-reflection (8) pushes students to assess their own knowledge and apply what they have learned in meaningful ways. 

It goes on.  Student goals in science are dependent on each-other and must be taught holistically through implicit modeling and explicit instruction.  Each goal supports and is supported by another, for science instruction to be successful these goals must be presented as a whole.

Why?

Why should we teach the nature of science?  It's the content that we test, what's so important about about the process?  If students like the subject matter they will want to be scientists, right?  Wrong.  The problem with not actively modeling and teaching (explicitly and implicitly) the nature of science is that it leads to negative stereotypes of what it means to be a scientist. 

In Moving Beyond the Lone Scientists Azza Sharkawy states that "studies have found that students perceive scientists as white, balding males who wear spectacles and lab coats and work indoors with chemicals... students possess a sterotypic image of scientific work as asocial - an individual rather than a collaborative endeavor.  Such an image of scientists is alienating for many students, contributes to students' inauthentic views of scientific practice, and promotes a view of the scientific community that is exclusive and restrictive rather than inclusive.

In a society that is becoming more diverse by the moment it is imperative that our researchers, scientists, and engineers represent the whole population instead of a small portion.  For innovations to be made in an area, there must first be researchers interested in that area.  No matter how educated and experienced, a person may not have the intrinsic motivation needed to research in areas that go against or do not affect their demographic.  It is important that people of all races, ethnicities, genders, and faiths study science so that their needs are explored and met. 

A simple example of this is the misconception that science is an asocial activity.  There are exceptions, but females tend to be social and prefer to collaborate with others.  If a young girl likes to study geology but thinks that geologists spend their days alone studying readings and performing the same chemical test on twenty rock specimens, there is a chance that she might think, "I think I'll study business instead." 

Sharkawy, A. (2009). Moving beyond the lone scientist: Helping 1st-grade students appreciate the social context of scientific work using stories about scientists. Journal of elementary science education, 21(1), 61-78. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03174716